        MicroProse JUMP JET Fighter Simulation

        MicroProse Bulletin Board
           (410) 785-1841

        07/14/93

        Additional Information Supplement


        Harrier Weapons and Supplies

        Cannons

        Most Effective
        against:
        Aircraft in flight
        Aircraft on ground
        (not in hangar)
        Airfield tower,
        radio/radar Non-
        military buildings
        Stockpiles of
        military equipment
        Large missile
        launchers
        "Soft targets" trucks etc.

        GAU-12/U Equalizer
        The General Electric "Equalizer" has a five-barrel
        Gatling type cannon with a pneumatic drive system in an
        under fuselage pod.
        Firing rate 4,200 rounds per minute with a capacity of
        300 rounds.
        Weight:         559  kg
        Drag Factor:    0.14

        Aden 25 mm
        Developed by Royal Ordnance the 25mm Aden has a slow
        rate of fire but can be fitted in two places under the
        fuselage. It is pneumatically cocked, gas
        operated, revolver cannon with a rate of fire of 1750
        rounds per minute. The Aden has a low recoil factor and
        reaches maximum rate of fire very quickly.
        Weight:         430 kg
        Drag Factor:    0.12

        25 mm ADEN podded gun
        Single-barrelled ADEN gun firing 31 rounds per
        second with a capacity of 330 rounds.
        Weight:         798 kg
        Drag Factor:    0.12

        GPU-5A 30 mm Gun Pod
        Four-barrelled Gatling type gun with a rate of fire of
        50 rounds per second and ammunition capacity of 353
        rounds.
        Weight:         862 kg
        Drag Factor:    0.12

        Air-to-Air Guided Missiles

        Most effective against:
        Aircraft in the air

        AIM-9S Sidewinder
        The AIM-9S is the best dogfighting missile currently
        available. It has the capability to hang on to twisting,
        turning targets. Combat pilots like to use it when catching
        enemy fighters from the rear, from above or nose on. The
        Sidewinder"s main weakness is its short range.

        Heat-Seeking Air-to-Air Missile
        Impact Velocity:        Mach 3.5 (2600 mph)
        Range:  5 miles
        Weight:         87 Kg
        Speed:  Mach 2"
        Attack Altitude:        500 ft "
        Seeker:         All aspect infra-red
        Attack Technique:       Air-to-
        air "fire-and-forget". Drag
        Factor:    0.01



        Harrier Air and
        Ground Attacks

        Air-to-Ground Missiles

        "Fire-and-Forget"

        With "fire-and-forget" missiles such as the Maverick
        it"s just a matter of getting "lock-on" (indicating a
        high-accuracy firing solution) and then releasing them.
        These missiles are extremely effective in destroying
        groundbased targets so it"s wise to wait for your best
        possible shot. After launch, the missile assumes your
        course and speed then drops for about 300 feet before
        its motor fully ignites and accelerates the missile. The
        missile"s maximum range depends on the amount of fuel it
        has and its initial launch speed; the faster you are
        flying, the greater the missile"s range.

        As a general rule do not launch a missile below 500 feet
        or in a power dive because it may hit the ground before
        you can fly away.

        Laser Guided Bombs

        These are motorless missiles that glide from your plane
        to a target "painted" by a laser controlled by a ground
        installation.

        Glide bombs travel as fast as the launching aircraft. If
        you release from low altitude, they hit the target about
        the same time as your plane is passing over it and the
        explosion will damage or destroy your plane. To counter
        this problem Harrier pilots will employ the "toss
        bombing" method.

        Toss Bombing

        Approach level at about 500 feet, flying at full speed.
        When you are 3 to 6 km from the target pitch up into a
        climb (30 to 40) and watch for "lock-on" on your HUD.
        When this occurs, launch the bomb and turn away.

        Level Bombing

        You may also "level bomb" with LGBs. Generally, you will
        need to attack from
        at least 2000 feet. From that height you can "lock" onto
        the target from 4 km. Attack at once then turn away but
        remember to keep your underside facing
        the target. You can, if you wish, fly over the target but
        climb to 3000 feet to avoid the explosion. Remember that
        you will then be a sitting duck for
        enemy radar and SAMs.

        Retarded Bombs

        These are unguided bombs fitted with special fins that
        slow them down very quickly. This allows the bombs to fall
        behind your aircraft making lower altitude drops safer.

        Level Bombing

        The standard technique for retarded bombing is to fly
        straight over the target at low altitude and then release
        the bomb on the cue from your HUD.
        If you maintain speed in your bombing run, you can
        safely release the ordnance from just above 500
        feet, and safely avoid the 3000 feet burst area.

        Retarded bombs are less accurate than free-fall or
        laser-guided bombs and
        will probably miss the target from high altitude. It"s
        also extremely difficult to hit precise targets with them
        although cluster bomb units (BL755 and Rockeye) give good
        area coverage to compensate for drop inaccuracies.

        Free-Fall Bombs

        These are conventional bombs that arc down at high speed
        toward the
        target.

        Level Bombing

        This is the simplest method of dropping free-fall bombs.
        The same procedure as retarded bombing applies, except
        that the safe bombing altitude is 3000 feet, instead of
        500 feet, making you vulnerable to enemy defenses.

        Dive Bombing

        This is a more accurate technique for dropping free-fall
        bombs but requires considerable practice and skill.

        To make a dive bombing attack, start by flying low
        toward the target.
        Select your ordnance. When you are 6 km from the target
        zoom up into a 55 climb to get to 8000 feet.
        Your objective is to get to the correct height about 2
        km horizontal distance from the target.
        Now dive for the target. Level out, tap the air brakes
        and at just under 1 km from the target, push down in a
        steep (80) dive. Now, line up the target with your HUD.
        Keep an eye on your altitude, if you are below 3000 feet
        before bomb drop, pull out and try again. Release the
        bomb and, if there is time, release another bomb
        immediately then pull up sharp and roll away in a 90
        turn. Close the airbrakes.

        Climbing to a dive bombing position usually broadcasts
        your presence to the
        enemy so it"s wise, once you turn away from the target,
        to check for missile warnings.

        Reconnaissance

        If you are on a reconnaissance mission you should have
        a camera pod loaded on your Harrier. You can select the
        Recon pod like any other ordnance and your HUD
        information will change to the appropriate type.

        To take photographs fly the plane so that the target
        passes through the centre of the target box. When this
        happens hit the Fire Ordnance selector. You will see a
        message to confirm if you have taken a photograph
        successfully.

        Camera runs are similar to strafing runs but in this
        case you can fly level because the camera is slanted
        slightly down. Remember that flying with air brakes
        extended slows your speed making it much easier to line
        up shots.

        Air-to-Air Combat

        The Harrier has the ability to change the position of its
        thrust nozzles to give it greater agility in air-to-air
        combat. Vectoring In Forward Flight (VIFFing) allows the
        aircraft to perform unique aerial manoeuvres. By using VIFF
        the Harrier can decelerate very quickly forcing enemy
        aircraft to fly in front of it; useful if you are trying to
        out-turn someone on your tail.

        The Harrier is also a supreme dogfighting aircraft by
        virtue of its agility, high thrust-to-weight ratio, small
        mass, non-smoke engine,  cannon,
        Sidewinder capability and high angle-of-attack flight
        control system. It also has excellent self-defence
        capability with its radar warning system; chaff/flare
        dispensers and jamming systems.

        Surprise!

        In air-to-air combat, surprise is one of your most
        important weapons. The best method to ambush an enemy
        plane is to creep up behind it. Fighter pilots, in
        general, prefer to attack from above to get an "energy
        advantage" in any dogfight. If you are "bounced" by the
        enemy, you must look for incoming missiles and take the
        appropriate defensive action. The basic rule is that
        missiles travel faster than planes and must be countered
        first. Only after that can you think about an escape or a
        dogfight.

        Exchanging Missiles

        An air-to-air battle usually begins with a head-to-head
        face-off. Be prepared to set ECM or chaff the incoming.
        Remember that if you can get off a second missile then so
        can your opponent; especially if he carries IR missiles
        (expect them on MiG-29s and Su-27s).

        Radar-Homing AAMs

        Most radar-guided weapons are semi-active homers: the
        launching aircraft
        must continue to "paint" you with its radar and the
        missile homes on the "paint". Avoid radar-homing AAMs
        in the same manner as SAMs (see below)

        Infra Red (IR)

        Homing AAMs

        All IR homing AAMs are "fire-and-forget" weapons. To
        counter them, use the same tactics as against IR SAMs
        (see below). Many IR homers are usually fired at short
        range during a dogfight which means you"ll have to be
        fast with the IR defences as soon as you get a launch
        warning, then dodge away from the missile"s 45 field-
        of-view. If you delay too long drop a flare and dodge,
        then pray!


        Dogfights

        Get On His Tail!

        The basic rule in dogfighting is to get behind your
        opponent. On all fighter
        aircraft guns and missile systems face forwards and if
        you"re on his tail you
        can shoot and he can"t. If you can"t get on his tail try to
        position his plane in front of you to give you the maximum
        number of firing opportunities.

        Go Faster! Climb Higher!

        Maintaining higher speed or altitude is valuable in a
        dogfight. An aircraft that is slower and lower can only hope
        to dodge attacks; but an aircraft that is faster or higher
        has the opportunity to attack or retreat. Being faster or
        higher than the enemy is termed the "energy advantage".

        Escape Manoeuvres

        The Harrier has its own special methods of shaking off a
        pursuing plane (see below) but in classic dogfighting terms
        there are five basic manoeuvres to remove an enemy plane
        from your tail.

        Turning Inside

        The easiest solution is to turn towards him (in the enemy
        plane"s direction). In the event of you turning faster than
        him, you"ll eventually circle around and get on his tail.
        It"s quite common to see rookie pilots engaged in a "turn
        match", circling around each other. However, if the enemy is
        turning faster than you, he"ll get behind you again. If you
        don"t want to get toasted you
        must try something else immediately!

        Scissors

        This is more complex but begins in the same way as
        Turning Inside. Begin to turn towards your opponent
        but, when he begins to turn with you, roll over to
        turn in the opposite direction. The scissors are
        now open!

        When the enemy realizes you"ve turned away he should
        turn back towards you. You then simply roll back
        towards him again closing the scissors.
        If your turns were quicker and tighter than his and/or
        you are the slower plane, he will eventually pass in
        front of you. This lets you in on his tail.
        Rookie pilots can often be lured into a scissors even if
        they have a plane that turns faster. Experienced enemy
        pilots may avoid this tactic by anticipating your next
        turn and blasting you (if they"re slower) or by pulling up
        and over in a Yo-Yo (if they"re faster).

        Immelmann Turn

        This is useful if you want to reverse direction quickly.
        Carry out a half loop upwards to reverse direction, then a
        half roll to right your aircraft. If an enemy is on your
        tail, an Immelmann will bring you nose-to-nose with him.
        Be careful when executing an Immelmann; it will give
        you an altitude gain but at the expense of speed.


        Split-S Turn

        Almost the opposite to the Immelmann, you begin this
        manoeuvre by rolling inverted, then pull the stick back
        to half-loop downward. Many pilots choose
        to roll the plane while looping. The Split-S causes you to
        lose altitude so it"s often wise to reduce throttle and use
        air brakes to minimalize altitude loss. Be careful using
        the Split-S into, or away from, the enemy and always keep
        an eye on the altitude  because it"s very easy to Split-S
        straight into the ground.

        Yo-Yo Turn

        A Yo-Yo is used primarily by higher speed jets against
        slower opponents.
        The Harrier will have little chance to use it against the
        fast jets but you may see enemy MiGs trying it against
        you.
        In a Yo-Yo you climb and roll toward the enemy until he"s
        visible out of the top of your canopy, then pull over into
        a dive while he"s still turning. During the dive you roll
        the plane to help line up your shot (which is often taken
        while you are inverted). Basically, a Yo-Yo makes a very
        big turn in three dimensions. Often the best defence
        against a Yo-Yo is to reverse your turn and go into a
        Split-S.

        -VIFFing" (Vectoring in Forward Flight)

        The Harrier is unique in its ability to change the
        direction of its thrust to give it greater agility in air-
        to-air combat. Thrust vectoring (rotating the thrust
        nozzles) can be used to improve the aircraft"s
        instantaneous turn performance. Put simply, this means
        that by rotating the thrust nozzles during forward flight
        the direction of the aircraft"s motion can be changed
        quite radically, causing potential non-STOVL and missile
        adversaries to overshoot. Much of the development of the
        VIFFing tactic was carried out by the US Marine Corps.

        By pointing the exhaust nozzles downwards relative to the
        aircraft under slow-speed, low-G conditions,  VIFFing can
        double the instantaneous turn performance. But at high
        speed and high-G its effects are minimal.  However, since
        all the thrust is now directed downwards the aircraft will
        decelerate far more rapidly than a conventional fighter.

        VIFFing can also be used to effect a vertical reversal
        after a zoom climb: this is a shallow climb in which the
        pilot can trade altitude for airspeed or vice versa
        without causing a loss of motion energy.  If the rear
        nozzles are rotated downwards when the aircraft is in a
        near-vertical slow speed zoom climb the effect is to make
        the aircraft pitch forward, pivoting about its centre of
        gravity (CofG) and quite literally swapping ends to point
        itself back down at its attacker. This can be a valuable
        manoeuvre if the Harrier is equipped with all-aspect air-
        to-air missiles like the Sidewinder.


        Enemy Surface-to-Air Missile Systems (SAMs)

        Medium/Long Range SAMs

        Medium and long-range SAMs are controlled by radar. All
        types use the
        same 3 step process to engage their target.

        Radar Search.

        Search radar periodically scans the sky (360) for

        aircraft.

        Radar Tracking

        When search radar finds something, it "hands off" the
        prospective target to a narrow-beam fire control radar,
        usually running on a different frequency. This finds and
        "locks-on" to your aircraft. When the fire control
        operators are sure their beam is tracking correctly they
        launch a missile.


        Radar Control


        After the missile is launched, the ground station
        continues tracking the plane so the missile"s course can
        be updated and corrected. There are three
        methods to control the missile"s course:

        Beam Rider- The SAM is guided along the radar beam toward
        you.

        Semi-Active SAMs- The missile has a radar receiver and
        computer in its
        nose. The tracking radar "paints" your aircraft with a
        radar signal and the missile nose receiver catches the
        reflections. The missile homes-in on these reflections
        until it hits the plane.

        Command Guidance SAMs- These missiles use semi-active
        guidance but, in addition, the firer has a command link to
        the missile to allow him to override the SAG. This means
        that if the missile loses guidance, or is otherwise
        confused, the ground controller can turn the missile
        around again.

        Evading Radar-Guided SAMs

        Running Away

        The basic method to evade radar-guided SAMs is to
        disappear from the
        radar. The further you are from enemy radar, the

        weaker the signal, so you may want to run away for a

        while until the signal is too weak to see you. Auto

        Defence

        Your ECM jammer is a good defence against beam

        riders.

        Chaff

        Each chaff cartridge (you have a maximum of 20 on
        board on each mission) sends out small tin-foil
        strips that reflect enemy radar. For a minimum of
        two seconds, the strips form a huge radar reflector,
        blinding the missile and acting like a smoke screen.

        To employ chaff you must wait until the radar-guided
        missile is a few seconds away, then fire a cartridge
        (Key C) and turn away. The temporarily blinded missile
        will fly straight into the chaff missing you. Beware
        when using chaff because it may not deceive a Doppler-
        guided missile such as the

        SA-10 and SA-12 (see later).

        Manoeuvring

        It"s important to manoeuvre out of the missile"s field
        of view because, after your defence measure expires, the
        missile will re-acquire you and continue on a collision
        course!

        Infra Red Homing SAMs

        Short ranged SAMs are usually IR homing that use a three-
        stage technique:

        Search

        The enemy detects your aircraft, from search radar, radio
        stations or by eyesight.

        Missile Lock-On

        A Missile is aimed at your aircraft. If you are close
        enough, the missile will see your heat signature and
        "lock-on".

        Missile Launch

        Once "locked-on", the missile is launched and guides
        itself toward you.

        Some SAMs are shoulder-launched; carried in trucks or
        jeeps by
        infantrymen and fired at point-blank range. If there are
        significant numbers of enemy forces you can expect these
        weapons.

        Evading SAMs

        Turning Away

        First generation IR missiles can be outmanoeuvred by
        turning tightly
        towards them. This turns your hot exhaust from the
        missile"s view. Second generation IR homers are more
        sensitive and recognize all surfaces heated by air
        friction, this means the front and top of a plane
        will appear "hot".

        Flares

        Flares are small, finely tuned heat decoys. A flare lures
        an IR missile toward it and away from you but only during
        the two to three seconds it takes to burn, After it has
        died, the missile will continue to seek, so the classic
        technique adopted by combat pilots is to wait until the
        missile is close then drop a flare and turn away.

        Outmanoeuvring a Missile

        SAMs can only find their targets within the acquisition
        arc of their seeker. The arc is 45 ahead of the missile.
        Move outside this arc, usually at 90 to its flight path,
        and you evade attack. You can also try turning inside a
        missile. Its turning arc is greater than yours causing it
        to zoom past you.

        Also, try turning toward a missile and increase turn
        tightness as it comes closer. The missile will not turn
        with you, but it will gradually fall behind and zoom past
        your tail.

        If a SAM approaches you from the front, make a quick 90
        turn forcing the missile to face the side of your
        aircraft. Now, roll 180 and turn toward the missile
        ready for a turning match.

        Missiles with the Doppler-guidance systems are a special
        danger because
        they will not home-in on the chaff unless your course is
        perpendicular to the missile. If the missile chases you
        from the rear or straight ahead, chaff will have no
        effect. Three SAMs have Doppler guidance systems: SA-10,
        SA-12 and SA-N-6.



        The Harriers

        The GR Mk.7

        An upgrade of the GR Mk.5 incorporating Forward
        Looking Infra Red (FLIR)
        equipment and cockpit modifications for Night Vision
        Goggle compatibility. The GR Mk.7 can fly and deliver
        ordnance accurately at night, in bad weather
        conditions and at low-level.
        
        Specification

        TYPE

        Single-seat STOVL (short take-off vertical landing)
        tactical ground-attack fighter

        POWERPLANT

        One Rolls-Royce Pegasus 11-21 (Mk 105) vectored
        thrust turbofan rated at  21,750lb static thrust (st)

        DIMENSIONS

        Wingspan:       30ft 4in (9.25m)
        Overall length:         46ft 4in (14.2m)
        Height:         11ft 8in (3.55m)
        Wing area (inc LERX):   239sq ft (22.2sq m)
        Wheeltrack:     17ft (5.18m)
        Wheelbase:      11ft 4in (3.45m) (nosewheel to
        mainwheels)
        
        WEIGHTS
        
        Empty weight:   14,300lb (6,485kg)
        Max conventional take-off  (CTO) weight:
        31,000lb (14,060kg)
        Max vertical take-off (VTO) weight:     18,950lb
        (8,595kg)
        Max fuel/weapon load (CTO):     17,000lb (7,710kg)
        Max fuel/weapon load (VTO):     6,750lb (3,062kg)
        Max vertical landing weight:    18,650lb (8,459kg)

        PERFORMANCE

        Max Mach no. at high level:     Mach 0.91
        Max speed at sea level:         662mph (1065kph/575kts)
        Combat radius (air-to-ground mission):  480nm (553
        miles/889km)
        High-level intercept radius
        (3min combat reserves for VL):  627nm (722miles/1,162km)

        ARMAMENT

        Two 25mm ADEN cannon with 100 rpg; two AIM-9L Sidewinder
        AAMs; up to 9,200lb of external ordnance (see below)

        CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

        Metallics:      70%
        Carbon fibre composite:         25%
        Acrylic:        1.75%
        Fibreglass:     0.25%
        Other:  3%

        The Pegasus Engine

        The 24,450lb st Rolls-Royce Pegasus Mk 105 remains the
        world"s only production vectored thrust turbofan and is
        unique to the Harrier, providing both lift and
        propulsive thrust for the RAF"s entire fleet of Harrier
        GR5 and GR7 aircraft. Known also to the USMC as the
        Pegasus 11-21E or the F402-RR406A, the engine represents
        a substantial improvement over the Mk 103
        which powered the GR5/7"s predecessor the GR3. With
        particular regard to its reliability and maintenance:
        time between overhauls (TBO) is now 1,000 hours
        compared with a mere 30 hours in 1960 for the very
        first Pegasus Mk3. 
        
        This is an important consideration if the aircraft
        is operating away from its home base in forward
        positions where engineering back-up may be limited.

         The Pegasus Mk 105 is also fitted with a Digital
        Engine Control System (DECS) which monitors the
        performance of the power plant at all times,
        automatically adjusting the thrust settings whilst
        taking into account the aircraft"s speed and altitude
        within the performance limitations imposed by engine
        rpm, jet pipe temperature and acceleration. The DECS
        takes much of the pressure off the pilot who previously 
        had to monitor all these functions, fly and fight at 
        the same time. A rapid thrust-dumping mode also prevents 
        pilots from "bouncing" the aircraft on vertical landings 
        - saving a loss of face in the crew room afterwards!

        Inside the Cockpit

        Representing a huge improvement over the GR3, the GR7
        cockpit is roomy
        and less cluttered, with more attention paid to
        ergonomics by the manufacturers. The pilot"s
        Martin-Baker Type 12 ejection seat is fitted
        higher in the cockpit than in the older aircraft, giving
        him a higher  eyeline and a greater field of vision
        through a new bulbous canopy.

        The Smiths Industries 425SUM1 head-up display (HUD) and
        its associated up-front control (UFC) push-buttons below,
        together with the TV-type multipurpose display (MPD)
        screen on the main instrument panel to the pilot"s left,
        offer him a number of display modes which include
        navigation, stores management, weapons delivery,
        engine/fuel data and radar warning.

        A GEC Avionics Digital Colour Map Unit (DCMU) viewed on a
        Smiths Industries MPD is on the main instrument panel to the
        pilot"s right, and receives computer data from  the
        Litton AN/ASN-130 inertial navigation system (INS)
        (also fitted to the USMC AV-8B) situated beneath the
        pilot"s feet.  The right-hand MPD also acts as a
        standby, or alternative, to the MPD fitted to the left-
        hand side of the main instrument panel.

        There are fewer dials in the new cockpit and are
        confined to conventional analogue flight instruments
        such as altimeter, airspeed indicator (ASI), angle-of-
        attack (AOA), compass with course/heading/distance etc,
        and clock.  They are situated centrally immediately
        behind the HOTAS (hands-onthrottle-and-stick) type
        control grip.

        HOTAS allows the pilot to control virtually all the
        functions required in a combat situation without
        removing his hands from the stick such as weapons,
        manoeuvre flaps, ARBS and Sidewinder selection.

        The consoles on either side of the pilot contain (to the
        left) throttle and jet nozzle actuator lever; fuel,
        external lighting (navigation, landing, anticollision) and
        oxygen switches; the SAAHS (Stability Augmentation and
        Attitude Hold System) panel. To the right are the
        communications, cockpit environment and power supply
        switches.

        The SAAHS provides automatic stabilisation throughout the
        aircraft"s flight envelope and also acts as an autopilot
        during take-off, landing and transition, with automatic
        altitude, attitude and heading hold essential during the
        lowspeed manoeuvres crucial to the operation of STOVL
        aircraft.

        A Martin-Baker Type 12 ejection seat is fitted to the GR7.
        It is known as a -zero-zero" system which means that a
        pilot can -punch out" from an aircraft standing on the
        ground - zero speed and zero altitude.

        Life-support equipment carried in the GR7 cockpit includes
        full NBC warfare protection for the pilot and an on-board
        oxygen generation system with an oxygen/air mixture
        control.

        Avionics

        An ECM-resistant GEC Avionics AD3500 U/VHF transceiver is
        fitted to the GR7 for communications plus a Cossor IFF 4760
        transponder. The Litton AN/ASN-130 INS  and GEC
        Avionics DCMU act together as a terrain-reference
        navigation system.

        The transparent nose cone of the GR7 accommodates the Hughes
        ASB-19(V)-2 Angle Rate Bombing System (ARBS) which has two 
        basic modes.
        
        As a laser spot tracker it enables the pilot to visually 
        acquire his target while it is being illuminated by a 
        ground-based laser source or a designator-equipped
        aircraft.  This mode does not need to be used in daylight
        attacks when contrast lock (the target"s natural contrast
        characteristics) can be employed.

        In its TV mode, the ARBS projects target angle rate data
        (slant angle and range to the target) onto the HUD and the
        pilot follows the steering instructions to ensure an
        accurate weapons delivery in a single pass.

        Electronic Countermeasures

        The Tracor AN/ALE-40 chaff/flare dispensers located beneath
        the wings in the undercarriage outrigger fairings are 
        activated by the Marconi "Zeus" ECM system from twin 
        antennae beneath the nose housing forward hemisphere receivers.  
        It is likely that a Philips chaff/flare dispenser mounted 
        inside the Sidewinder pylon will eventually be fitted to 
        augment the existing equipment.

        "Zeus" consists of an advanced radar-warning receiver (RWR)
        combined with an automatic Northrop jammer which is capable of
        responding, via its computer memory of up to 1,000 known 
        emitters, to confuse any would-be attacker.  It can also
        automatically trigger decoy chaff and flares to combat
        radar-guided and heat-seeking missiles respectively.

        In the extreme tail of the aircraft a small radome
        houses the Plessey Missile Approach Warning (MAW) system
        which can automatically activate appropriate countermeasures 
        when it detects a hostile missile homing in. 
        
        Beneath this radome in the ventral fin tail bumper is an 
        ECM/Rear Warning Radar (RWR) and in each wing tip more 
        "Zeus" ECM antennae, plus transmitter aerials for the 
        jamming component.

        Night Operations

        Although the Harrier GR7 is by no means an all-weather
        day/night aircraft, the combination of a forward looking
        infra red (FLIR) system and a pair of night vision
        goggles (NVG) for the pilot allows the aircraft to fly
        closesupport missions at any time of the day or night,
        except in the very worst of weather conditions.

        FLIR is a form of thermal imaging equipment which
        detects temperature differences in and around the object
        under surveillance.  Put simply, it is a heat-sensitive
        camera which sees shape in terms of heat rather than
        reflected light.  The GEC FLIR equipment is mounted in a
        slim, raised fairing on top of the aircraft"s nose cone
        but its field of vision is fairly narrow, confined as it
        is to dead ahead, so the pilot must have a means to
        intensify his peripheral vision during night operations.
        This is achieved by the use of a pair of Ferranti NITE-OP
        (Night Imaging Through Electro Optics Package) night-
        vision goggles fitted to the pilot"s bone dome which are
        not unlike a pair of binoculars in appearance.  They are
        basically a clever optical device which widens his field
        of vision in the dark by converting any incoming
        (optical) light into electrons which are then
        electronically enhanced and converted back to optical
        light (photons) as a brighter, clearer image in the
        eyepieces of the goggles. This enables him to view the
        air and ground ahead and to either side in sufficient 
        detail so he can keep an eye open for "bogeys" and to 
        navigate and locate his target.  The GR7"s cockpit is 
        night-gogglecompatible (NGC) which means that 
        instrumentation and lighting have been modified to 
        compensate for the effects of  the pilot viewing 
        instrumentation through his NVGs.

        Weapons and Stores

        There are nine stations on the GR7 for the attachment of
        weapons and stores: four below each wing and one
        centreline point beneath the fuselage, plus
        two underbelly cannon pods. The precise mix of fuel and
        weapons to be carried is dictated by the distance to the
        target, although the GR7 has about 14,500 lb of weight
        available for fuel and weapons of which some 9,200lb
        takes the form of external stores.

        The range of weapons available to the GR7 includes the
        AIM-9L all-aspect Sidewinder air-to-air missile for self
        defence.  Dedicated pylons are located between the inner
        and intermediate stations beneath each wing, aligned
        with the outrigger undercarriage fairing for the carriage
        of two missiles.  Up to six Sidewinders can be carried by
        RAF GR7s.

        A wide selection of stores is available to the GR7
        including the Hunting BL755 582lb (264kg) cluster bomb
        for use against armoured vehicles;  540lb and 1,000lb
        (245 and 454kg) high explosive bombs (free-fall or with
        tailmounted retarding parachute); laser-guided 1,210lb
        (549kg) Pave Way bomb;  
        Matra 155 rocket pods carrying 18 x 68mm  SNEB
        rockets for antishipping attacks; and two 25mm ADEN
        cannon with a rate of fire of between 1,650 and 1,850
        rpm.  The inner and intermediate pylons are also
        plumbed for fuel and the fitting of drop tanks.

        Reaction Control System

        In normal flight, the Harrier is controlled by
        ailerons, rudder and an allmoving tailplane. The
        aileron and tailplane are power operated and are fed
        by two independent hydraulic systems. The rudder is
        pilot powered. However, in hover or minimal jet
        flight - which takes place below normal aerodynamic
        stalling speed- normal controls are not sufficient
        and have to be backed up by the Reaction Control
        System.

        The system controls the aircraft in roll, pitch and yaw
        and is linked to the Harrier"s rudder pedals and
        control column. This means that, even in hover, the
        pilot can fly the Harrier like any normal aircraft,
        giving him important continuity of control.

        RCS is based around the engine high-pressure compressor
        bleed-air fed to the shutter valves positioned at the
        extreme points of the aircraft. The valves are ordinary
        convergent nozzles with a varying exit area created by
        a swinging shutter. These shutters on the Reaction
        Control Valves are driven by the flying control system.

        Landing Performance

        The Harrier"s flap/aileron/nozzle high lift system
        allows slower approach speeds and more reserve power,
        leading to a greater thrust margin, less water
        consumption, reduced wear and tear on the engine and a
        shorter ground roll.

        Structure

        The Harrier is the first normal production combat
        aircraft to have been constructed out of a high
        percentage of composite materials. Composite
        material is used to make up the wings, forward fuselage,
        stabilator, ailerons, flaps, rudder and access doors
        creating a saving in weight of 480 pounds (217 kg).

        The Wing and LERX

        The Harrier wing is a supercritical airfoil which holds a
        large quantity of fuel. The wings have automatic-
        manoeuvring flaps, drooped ailerons in a high-lift
        configuration and leading edge root extension (LERX) for
        increased agility in flight.

        Developed by British Aerospace LERX are aerodynamic
        surfaces in front of the wing root which increase pitch 
        rate and lift, leading to improved turn rate and handling 
        at high angles of attack. LERX work by producing a vortex, an
        energetic tube of rotating air, along the top surface
        of the wing. 
        
        As the incidence angle of the wing is increased (if the
        aircraft is flown in a tightening turn), the airflow
        over it becomes untidy and disturbed, starting at the
        tips and moving inward. Without LERX this untidy flow
        would extend across the whole wingspan, the wing would
        stall and the aircraft would fall out of the turn. The
        vortex from the LERX allows the  airflow to remain
        stable, so a higher angle of incidence can be reached,
        and a tighter turn can be flown.

        Electrical Systems

        Power is produced by a single engine-driven generator.
        AC is converted to DC via two transformer rectifier
        units (TRU) with a battery unit which is used to start
        the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU).

        GTS/APU

        A Gas Turbine Starter and Auxiliary Power Unit is
        located on top of the Pegasus and is used to start the
        engine and provide AC electric power at times when it is
        not running. It may also be used as a standby generator
        if the main generator fails.

        Fibre Optic Technology

        The Harrier is unique in its use of fibre optics (thin glass
        threads) to transmit light impulses instead of electrical
        impulses. These optics can transmit the information of a
        complete set of encyclopaedias in under 16 seconds.

        Systems

        The Harrier has an integrated, computer-controlled
        navigation and attack system. System components are
        interconnected by a MIL-STD-1553B dual-
        redundant multiplex digital databus providing a high
        integrity, high reliability data link. The central
        control of the mission computer gives information to the
        pilot via  HUD, MFD and ODU (Options Display Unit). The
        mission computer also controls the moving map display
        (MMD) which is in itself controlled by an operational
        flight program.

        Backup systems are available, in event of failure,
        including sub-systems with secondary control panels for
        weapons and communications.

        Inertial Navigational System (INS)

        An automatic, self-contained dead-reckoning system. The
        mission computer uses information to calculate velocity,
        pitch, roll and true heading which it then passes to
        other systems.

        Current position is worked out on a continuous basis
        from inertial inputs and keeps to an accuracy of level
        of 1 Nautical Mile per hour. Position can be updated
        using either TACAN fixing, geographical point
        recognition, or through the Moving Map Display.

        The main unit of this system is the Ferranti F.E. 541
        inertial platform used in conjunction with a HUD developed
        by Specto Avionics and the Smith"s Air

        Data Computer.

        Moving Map Display
        Known to the pilots as the "shufti scope", the MMD shows a
        map area in either track or north orientation. The INS can
        be aligned wherever the aircraft is "parked" by punching
        in latitude and longitude co-ordinates correct to two
        decimal points. To ensure 100% attack accuracy, three
        check points are fed in leading up to the target. When the
        Harrier reaches a particular check point, small errors in
        navigation are corrected.

        Stores Management System

        Controlled through the UFC, MPD and HOTAS controls,
        this system controls the delivery of air-to-ground
        weapons, Sidewinder missiles and the two Aden guns
        mounted in fuselage.

        Angle Rate Bombing Set (ARBS)

        Pinpoints targets with laser/TV contrast tracking
        which enables high accuracy first pass attacks. In effect, 
        once the pilot has "locked-on" to a target using the passive 
        non-radiating ARBS tracker, line-of-sight and angle rate 
        information is input to the computer which takes care of 
        steering commands on all head-up/head-down displays.

        The TV-contrast tracker provides a six times
        magnification of the target on the multi-function
        display (MFD) and is linked to the laser spot tracker
        and AIM-9 seeker head as extra target identification
        information.

        The pilot can release weapons manually with
        Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP) system or
        choose automatic ordnance release mode. In laserguided
        attacks the target is highlighted by a laser designator
        (airborne or ground based) and once the ARBS Laser Spot
        Tracker "locks" onto the target steering data is output
        by the computer. Laser designation can spot most
        targets by day or night.

        Survivability

        If battle damage is incurred the Harrier incorporates
        many features to help survivability including redundant
        fuel and hydraulic systems, a multi-spar composite wing
        and mechanical/fluid control systems which can operate
        without electric power. The risk of fire is reduced by
        the On-Board Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS) which
        makes the carriage of liquid or gaseous oxygen
        redundant.

        Fuel System

        Five fuselage and two integral wing tanks give a
        capacity for 7500 pounds of fuel. 
        
        In addition, the Harrier can carry four external
        fuel tanks on underwing pylons increasing capacity to
        15,520 pounds.

        The fuel system is organized in two separate sections:
        fuel is channelled to the centre tank and then to the
        engine-driven pump and the Digital Engine Control System
        (DECS). In event of the failure of one section, the other
        section will still feed the engine.

        Refuelling is carried out under high pressure through a
        single coupling on the left forward fuselage. In-flight
        refuelling is made possible by a retractable probe
        mounted on the left inlet.

        Pressurisation and Air Conditioning

        The engine HP compressor air provides two
        pressurisation/air conditioning systems incorporating
        cold air units. One system provides cockpit air and
        ventilates equipment in the nose. The second provides air
        to the rear equipment bay.

        Oxygen System

        The On-Board Oxygen Generating System (OBOGS) supplies
        the correct
        breathing mixture to the pilot when the engine is
        operating. The ejection seat also contains an emergency
        supply of breathing oxygen which can be worked
        automatically of manually.

        Anti-g System

        The air supply system also provides the pressure for the
        pilot"s anti-g suit, channelled with his oxygen (and a
        mic/tel connector) through a seat mounted Personal Equipment 
        Connector (PEC). This means that the whole four-function 
        unit can be connected and disconnected with one rapid action.

        Hydraulic System

        Two independent systems produce hydraulic power that
        can operate the flight controls in the event of
        system failure. Dual engine-driven pumps provide 3000
        PSI pressure to feed the system.

        Escape System

        The Harrier has a fully automatic Martin-Baker type
        12H Mk.1 rocket
        assisted ejection seat with the zero-zero specification.
        This allows escape at all altitudes and speeds in the
        aircraft flight envelope down to zero height/zero speed.

        The Martin-Baker has small sensors to measure altitude,
        airspeed and deceleration after ejection. A selector then
        gathers the data to adjust operation for low speed/low
        altitude, high speed/high altitude or any speed/high
        altitude ejection. Immediately prior to ejection, the
        canopy is broken by a tiny detonating cord system fired
        automatically by the
        movement of the ejection seat.

        The AV-8B

        The AV-8B's main task is to provide close air support
        for ground troops but has proved to be extremely useful
        in many other tactical roles. It is used by the United
        States Marine Corps who employ the aircraft"s STO/VL
        capabilities for high sortie rates and rapid response
        times. The AV-8B, also known as the Harrier II, was
        developed by McDonnell Douglas in collaboration with
        British Aerospace.

        AV-8B Harrier II Specification

        TYPE

        Single-seat STOVL tactical ground-attack fighter

        POWERPLANT

        One Rolls-Royce Pegasus  F402-RR-408 (11-61)

        vectored thrust turbofan rated at 23,800lb st

        DIMENSIONS/WEIGHTS /PERFORMANCE

        As for the RAF"s Harrier GR7

        Potential ARMAMENT

        216lb (98kg) LAU-68,  577lb (262kg) LAU-10 and
        542lb (246kg) LAU-61  rocket launchers; AGM-65
        Maverick missiles; 490lb (222kg) Mk 20 bombs,
        520lb (236kg) Mk 77 fire-bombs, 270lb (122kg) Mk
        81 bombs, 530lb (240kg) Mk 82 bombs, 985lb
        (447kg) Mk 83 bombs; AIM-9L Sidewinder AAMs on
        underwing pylons; and a single GAU-12/A 25mm
        cannon beneath the fuselage.


        The Sea Harrier FRS1


        Although this manual concentrates primarily on the RAF
        Harrier II GR7 and the US Marine Corps AV-8B, it is
        useful to take a quick look at its carrierbased
        maritime cousin the Sea Harrier FRS1 which fought with
        great
        distinction in the South Atlantic during the Falklands
        conflict of 1982. It is the only Harrier variant with a
        primary air-combat role.

        Formulated by a Naval Staff Requirement for a sea-going
        version of the land based GR3, the Sea Harrier was
        supposed to be a minimum-change version of the GR3, but
        it did introduce a number of design and avionics changes
        (noted
        below) when it entered service with the Royal Navy

        in 1979-80.  The type has since been superseded by

        the much updated FRS2 version.

        Sea Harrier FRS1 Specification

        TYPE

        Ship borne single-seat VSTOL strike fighter

        POWERPLANT

        One Rolls-Royce Pegasus 104 vectored-thrust

        turbofan rated at 21,500lb st DIMENSIONS

        Overall length:         47ft 4in (14.5m)
        Wingspan:       25ft 3in (7.7m)
        Overall height:         12ft 2in (3.71m)
        Wing area:      201.1
        sq ft (18.68sq m)
        WEIGHTS
        Empty weight:
        14,052lb (6,374kg)
        Operational weight:     23,000lb (10,433kg)
        Max take-off weight:    26,200lb (11,884kg)
        Underwing load
        weight:  5,000lb
        (2,268kg) Fuel
        capacity:  5,010lb
        (2,273kg)

        PERFORMANCE

        Maximum speed:
        642kts
        (736mph/1,189kmh)
        Cruising speed:         485kts (898kmh)
        Service ceiling:        50,000ft (15,240m)
        Radius of action:       250nm (463km)
        Maximum endurance:      7.3 hours with one in-flight
        refuel

        ARMAMENT

        2 x 30mm ADEN cannon in under-fuselage gun pack; 2/4
        AIM-9L
        Sidewinder AAMs; 5 x 1,000lb (454kg) iron bombs (free-
        fall or retarded); 5 x 600lb (272kg); 2 x BAe Sea
        Eagle anti-shipping missiles; 4 x Matra 115/116 68mm
        rocket pods; 5 APAM/Rockeye  Mk 7 cluster bombs; 10 x
        Bofors Lepus flares

        Power plant

        The Pegasus Mk 104 fitted in the Sea Harrier is a
        navalized version of the Mk 103 that powered the
        RAF"s GR3, replacing aluminium with noncorrosive
        magnesium and other alloys to resist corrosion from
        the saline atmosphere of a carrier"s deck.

        Cockpit

        To provide under floor space for avionics equipment and
        a revised cockpit layout, the cockpit floor of the Sea
        Harrier was raised by 11 inches.  Quite coincidentally,
        this raising of the floor provided the pilot, who sits
        on a Martin-Baker Type 10H zero-zero rocket-type
        ejection seat, with much improved all-round visibility
        from the bubble canopy.  The cockpit interior was
        redesigned to accommodate the Ferranti Blue Fox multi-
        mode radar and other naval-oriented avionics.

        Blue Fox is an I-band pulse-modulated radar designed
        for air-to-air
        interception and air-to-surface search and strike.  Fitted
        in the Sea Harrier"s nose behind a pointed radome, it was
        developed from the Seaspray search
        radar specifically for single-pilot aircraft and has all
        the necessary flight information (speed, altitude,
        heading etc) superimposed on the TV-type daylight
        viewing display of the radar.  Blue Fox operates in four
        modes: search, attack, boresight  and transponder.

        A Smiths Industries HUD driven by a 20,000-word digital
        computer
        generates display symbology and also acts as a flexible
        air-to-air and air-tosurface Weapons Aiming Computer
        (WAC).

        The basic layout for the flying controls and
        instrumentation in the Sea Harrier FRS1 is similar to
        the land-based Harrier GR3, but with no moving map and a
        small radar display added on the right-hand side of the
        main panel.

        Avionics

        The Sea Harrier"s electrical equipment differs from that
        of the land-based Harrier and its flying characteristics
        have been improved to complement its role as strike
        fighter. Increased roll reaction has been provided for
        dogfighting allowing a two-degree increase in nose-down
        pitch control.

         A Ferranti self-aligning Heading and Attitude Reference
        System (HARS) platform, cross-referenced to a Decca 72
        Doppler radar, performs all of the navigation and
        endurance functions required.  It provides far greater
        accuracy than a normal INS and can be aligned on a
        moving deck.  A UHF homing and a GEC Avionics AD2770
        TACAN plus an I-band transponder are
        also used for navigation.  Radio communications are
        handled by a Plessey PTR377 U/VHF transceiver with a
        D403M transceiver for standby VHF.

        Electronic Countermeasures

        Marconi ARI 18223 radar warning receiver aerials are
        positioned on the fin leading edge and extreme tip of
        the tailcone to warn of illumination by hostile radar.
        A Tracor ALE-40 chaff/flare dispenser unit was fitted
        in the rear fuselage as an emergency update  prior to
        embarking to the South Atlantic in 1982.

        Weapons and Stores

        The Sea Harrier FRS1"s armament in its primary air-
        combat role is the allaspect infra red homing AIM-9L
        Sidewinder missile.  The lessons learned in the
        Falklands led to the fitting of twin-rail Sidewinder
        launchers beneath each wing.

        A selection of bombs, cannon, depth charges, rocket
        pods and nuclear depth bombs can also be carried, thus
        making the Sea Harrier an extremely versatile fleet
        fighter.  To extend the aircraft"s combat or ferry
        range, a selection of drop (100 and 190 gallon) and
        ferry (300 gallon) tanks are available for carrying
        beneath the wings.


        Operating from
        Dispersed Sites

        The Conventional Airfield

        A modern military airfield cannot be hidden. A pair of
        runways measuring over 2000 metres in length, as well
        as hangars, taxi routes and hardstands, make it very
        visible and subsequently almost impossible to defend
        in modern war without a vast outlay in defensive
        equipment. Even then,
        missile attacks will be very difficult to neutralize and
        the best anti-aircraft defences will not prevent the
        runway from sustaining some kind of damage.

        If aircraft on the base do survive an attack they cannot
        be effective until the runway is repaired. It has been
        proved in the past that an entire air force can be made
        redundant if caught in this manner on the ground.

        The Concept of Dispersed Operation

        In a "hot" war, the continued existence of conventional
        aircraft and the
        airfields and runways from which they operate would be
        questionable. A well-placed bomb in the centre of a
        runway and on the Hardened Aircraft Shelters (HAS) could
        quite easily stop operations indefinitely for a squadron
        of multi-million pound high performance jet aircraft.

        The coming of the Harrier has revolutionized traditional
        military planning with its ability to operate away from
        home base out of rough forward airstrips, woodland
        clearings, motorways or carparks close to the
        battlefront. Basically, it can escape from the prying
        eyes of the enemy and from the inbuilt vulnerability of
        permanent airfields.

        The Site

        The Harrier can be dispersed across a wide range of
        terrain. All that is necessary are a few hundred feet of
        open ground.  These in-the-field sites can be pre-
        stocked, or may merely act as launch platforms for
        Harriers originating from a main base ready-fuelled and
        armed. With Harriers, there is little need for ground
        support equipment.

        The Main Base

        Damage to the main base airfield of a Harrier squadron is
        not critical. A Harrier will still continue to operate
        from a seemingly shattered runway. It can easily perform
        short take-off in the space left between bomb craters.

        Detection by an Enemy

        The enemy will find it very difficult to detect a
        dispersed Harrier force and will have to carry out area
        reconnaissance; tying up a large number of aircraft.
        It"s obvious that a dispersed Harrier force has a good
        chance of remaining undetected. Dispersed sites have the
        added advantage of needing no ground-to-air defences.

        Operating in Undeveloped Zones

        The Harrier also has the advantage of operating in parts
        of the world where modern airfields are few and far
        between. Most undeveloped countries rely
        on light air transport and have a plethora of small dirt
        track airstrips that could not support modern jet
        fighters but are more than ideal for Harrier operations.
        The Harrier is unique in its ability to operate in such
        situations.

        System of Operation

        The difference between the Harrier and conventional
        military aircraft is clear cut. While a normal jet
        fighter will fly from a distant airfield, a long way from
        the combat zone giving it a slower speed of response, the
        Harrier flies short-duration missions, carrying moderate
        loads but with the possibility of rapid turnaround.

        The Harrier can arrive at the target a few minutes after
        take off, giving a tactical advantage to the ground
        troops. This can be compared to the hour or so needed for
        other aircraft to reach a combat zone. In that time a
        battle may have changed in complexion and even the
        weather may have changed.
        Conventional aircraft often operate a "cab-rank patrol" in
        anticipation of a call from ground troops with details of a
        specific target. But the Harrier can perform the same
        function by landing close to the battle area. The pilot can
        be briefed by radio and react to any target
        information received instantly.

        The aircraft can then be flown to a supported site for
        weapons replenishment before returning to its ground
        "cab-rank" position.
        In time of war, a typical RAF Harrier squadron"s three
        flights would disperse to their own flying sites "in the
        field" where the flight commander would become the site
        commander. The site would usually support up to seven
        Harrier aircraft. Sites can range from woodland or forest
        clearings to villages, wooded sections of motorways,
        farmyards and even supermarket car parks;
        once the glass fronts of the buildings have been
        bulldozed in to provide
        hides inside for the aircraft.  In reality, aircraft
        hides in the field are invariably in wooded areas
        beneath overhanging trees. The site, disguised further
        by the use of camouflage netting, make it virtually
        invisible to ground or aerial reconnaissance.

        For rolling take-offs a site needs a 350 metre section
        of metalled strip such as a straight section of road or
        motorway.  -Mexe" metal landing pads can also be laid
        surrounded by trees, with double marker boards at each
        corner for the pilots to line up on for a vertical
        landing.

        To support a flight of Harriers in the field requires
        fuel and weapons,  demineralised water for the Harrier"s
        thrust augmentation system,  communications equipment,
        pillow tanks and tents, plus several hundred personnel.
        Packs of spare parts for the aircraft, spare tyres and
        other consumables are also kept at the flying site where
        complete engine changes can also be carried out
        (although this is a major operation requiring the use of
        a hoist and removal of the Harrier"s wing).

        The three flying sites within one squadron are supported
        by the squadron"s
        central logistics park located nearby. This acts as a
        stockpile and distribution point for ammunition and fuel
        supplies.


        The Development
        of the Harrier

        Early Military V/STOL Aircraft

        The first country to experiment with the idea of
        vertical take-off (VTO) was Germany. Towards the end of
        World War II, the world"s first true VTO aircraft was
        developed to be purely defensive, this aircraft was the
        Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" (Viper). The Ba 349 was a single-
        seat rocket-powered interceptor, armed with 24 unguided
        rockets, and was capable of only one flight.

        After a vertical launch, the Natter would climb at
        37,000ft per minute to an altitude of 20 to 25,000 ft
        and make its attack. When the engine had been shut
        down, the pilot would pull the control stick from its
        mounting, and the Natter would split into two pieces,
        one of which could be re-used. The pilot descended by
        parachute. The Natter never saw action, on its first
        manned
        flight a canopy malfunction caused it to crash, killing
        its pilot. The allied forces invaded Germany before any
        production Natters saw service, and a
        few years later surface-to-air missiles were
        performing the job which the Natter had been built
        for.

        Germany had other VTO designs on the drawing board,
        but all had one thing in common- they were rocket
        powered. The German designers knew that a piston
        engine cannot generate enough thrust to lift an
        aircraft vertically. Later, with the development of
        the jet engine came a new generation of
        vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft, which
        would eventually lead to the Harrier.

        The first of the jet-powered VTOL was American. In 1951,
        the US Navy
        asked both Lockheed and Convair to produce prototypes
        for a possible VTOL combat aircraft. The result was two
        of the strangest looking aircraft in the history of
        aviation, the Lockheed XFV-1 "Salmon" and the Convair
        XFY-1 "Pogo". These aircraft were powered by turboprop
        engines, which use jet
        engines linked to propellers to generate thrust, and were
        "tail sitters"; they had to take off and land pointing
        straight up.

        The concept was doomed from the start. To land the
        "Pogo", "Skeets" Coleman, the test pilot, had to back the
        aircraft down from about 1000ft, with a helicopter
        calling out the altitude as he descended. This took a
        considerable time, and the landing was dangerously
        inaccurate. To land such an aircraft on the deck of a
        ship would be very difficult, if not impossible. The XFV-
        1
        could not even manage to carry out one vertical take
        off, performing all test
        flights with a conventional undercarriage. The US Navy lost
        interest and cancelled the project in1956.

        The US Air Force learned from the mistakes of the US Navy,
        and worked
        with Ryan aircraft, to develop the X-13 Vertijet. This
        little aircraft was another tail sitter, but did not
        actually "sit" at all, but hung from a framework via a hook
        on its nose. It used a single Rolls-Royce Avon jet engine
        for
        power, and to control the Vertijet at low speed, air was
        bled from this engine to power little puffer jets at the
        wing tips. The puffer jets would roll the aircraft when
        there was not enough air passing over the ailerons to
        provide roll control.

        The Vertijet also had a simple thrust vectoring system (as
        in the modern day Harrier). The single exhaust nozzle
        could be moved around to help maintain stability in the
        hover. The Vertijet was the first jet aircraft to take off
        vertically, transition to normal flight, transition back
        to the hover then land vertically. It achieved this on
        12th April 1957. Unfortunately, the aircraft was extremely
        difficult to control, especially during transition from
        normal flight to hover, or vice-versa, and was too small
        to be of any real military use. It was not long before the
        US Air Force  followed the Navy and stop
        work on the X-13 project.

        The limitations of the "tail-sitters" (taking off facing
        up) were now apparent. These type of aircraft always
        needed to operate at weights below their
        engine thrust, because they had no other way of getting
        airborne and this meant that they could never match
        conventional aircraft in size and performance. In
        addition, they made flying a nightmare for any pilot,
        having to sit facing straight up, and especially when
        trying to land backwards.

        British Developments

        The British aircraft industry wanted to develop a
        supersonic VTOL jetliner, and Rolls-Royce started work on
        developing a rig for finding out how vertical flight
        could be achieved by a "flat riser": an aircraft which
        takes off in the conventional (horizontal) attitude. The
        result was the Rolls-Royce "Thrust Measuring Rig", known
        popularly as the "Flying Bedstead".

        The Bedstead was powered by two "Nene" jet engines, with
        nozzles both exhausting through the centre of gravity, so
        that the failure of one engine would not cause an instant
        crash. As a low-speed control system, it used
        puffer jets at the front, back, left and right of the aircraft
        to control pitch and roll, and the left and right nozzles
        could be tilted to control yaw. It first flew on the 9th July
        1953. R.A Harvey, the test pilot, told the Press after the
        flight,

        -The Bedstead was remarkably steady in that it remained firmly
        horizontal
        except when the stick was moved. It was difficult to
        believe that this topheavy machine weighing over 3 tons,
        poised on the jet thrust, was being balanced by the four
        air nozzles."

        The Flat-Risers

        It was apparent to the aircraft industry that the "flat
        riser" concept was the most workable option and the race
        was on to find the aircraft which could put this concept
        into action.

        The next batch of VTOL prototypes used tilting engines,
        that is the whole engine tilts through 90 degrees, to
        achieve transition from vertical to forward flight. The
        first of these types was the turboprop powered Bell XV3,
        developed under a1951 joint US Army/Air Force contract.

        The XV-3 was a difficult machine to pilot, with no
        automatic stabilization system to help the pilot in the
        hover, and a downwards-firing ejector seat. It soon
        became clear that it was under powered and the project
        was cancelled. The concept was taken one step further
        with the Boeing-Vertol VZ-2. In this design, the whole
        wing rotated, along with the engines. In effect, this
        meant
        that the wing would act like a sail, and the aircraft was
        vulnerable to even the gentlest of breezes. The VZ-2 was
        another failure.

        The British Fairey Rotodyne first flew on 6th November
        1957, and used a combination of a ramjet-driven rotor to
        achieve vertical flight, and two turboprops for forward
        flight. It was an interesting design, and provisional
        orders were placed by two airlines. However, it was noisy
        and lumbering to control and Fairey eventually stopped all
        work on the Rotodyne.

        The Jet-Engines

        It was apparent that, in order to achieve performance
        figures of comparable late 50s aircraft, VTOL research
        aircraft had to be powered by jet engines. Throughout this
        period researchers tried to find the best way to harness
        the power of a jet engine to achieve vertical flight.

        The Bell X-14, which first flew in 1957, was the first
        aircraft to use diverted thrust. The thrust from the two
        jet engines was diverted downwards by a deflector plate on
        the wing, giving the aircraft a VTOL capability. Puffer
        jets at the wing tips gave directional control. The X-14
        was too small to be of practical use, but it proved the
        theories which would be used later on.

        The US Army/Ryan XV-5 Vertifan used the jet engine to
        drive three fans, mounted in each wing and the nose. The
        problem with this was that the
        weight of these fans, and the additional drag they created,
        made the aircraft difficult to control in forward flight.
        The aircraft was also very difficult to control in the
        hover, killing three test pilots before the project was
        cancelled.

        The 1962 Lockheed XV-4 Hummingbird used another system:
        ejecting
        engine air over the wing to produce lift. This could not
        successfully achieve VTOL and unfortunately also ended up
        killing its test pilot.

        Lift Engines

        The next development were the "lift engines": small jet
        engines pointing straight down, which are used only for
        vertical flight. The British Short SC.1 was a small delta-
        winged aircraft which used four lift engines and one
        conventional engine for forward flight.

        This first hovered in 1958, but suffered from the classic
        problem of aircraft using lift engines: the airflow into the
        engines had a tendency to suck the aircraft onto the ground.

        This same problem was also experienced by the French, with
        the Dassault
        Balzac in 1962. This aircraft had eight lifting
        engines, and was based on a Mirage III supersonic
        fighter airframe. The Balzac had another major
        problem: the speed at which the aircraft could
        transition from hover to
        forward flight was critical. In a test flight, the pilot
        attempted transition at the wrong speed and the drag of the
        lift engines became excessive. The aircraft see-sawed to
        earth like a leaf, exploded and killed the pilot.

        In West Germany, both Focke-Wulf and EWR built VTOL
        prototypes, the
        VFW-1262 and the VJ-101. Both aircraft used a
        combination of lift engines and thrust engines, but
        used them in different ways.

        The Focke-Wulf VFW-1262 used a vectored thrust engine
        (an engine with rotating thrust nozzles) to allow the
        same engine to be used for vertical or
        horizontal flight. This vectored thrust engine was not
        powerful enough to lift an aircraft by itself, so the VFW-
        1262 also employed two lift engines to achieve vertical
        flight but, the VFW-1262 could not achieve true VTO, and
        it was also cancelled.

        The EWR VJ-101 was a very dramatic looking aircraft,
        using 6 Rolls-Royce RB.145 engines. Two were used as lift
        engines, and the other four were mounted as two pairs, in
        rotating pods at the wing tips. The EWR VJ-101 first flew
        in 1963, and had a supersonic performance. Several
        problems were
        encountered, however. The engines were so powerful that
        it wrecked
        anything which it landed on and melted its own tyres! In
        addition to this, an effect called "hot gas
        recirculation" meant that it could not achieve maximum
        performance from its engines.

        Hot gas recirculation is an important factor in VTOL. If
        the engine takes in exhaust gas, engine efficiency
        decreases, and as efficiency decreases, so does thrust.
        This problem is compounded by the particles of dirt and
        grit that the hot gas may contain, which can damage the
        engine. The Harrier overcame
        this problem by clever design of its intakes. The VJ-
        101 project continued, but suffered a major setback
        when the first prototype crashed in September 1964. The
        second prototype flew in 1965 with afterburning
        engines, only to be cancelled a few months later.

        West Germany did develop one successful VTOL aircraft,
        the Dornier Do31 transport plane, designed to support
        the VJ-101 in the field. The Do31 was a ten-engined
        aircraft  using two vectoring thrust Rolls-Royce
        Pegasus 5 (as
        used in the Harrier), and eight lift engines, arranged as
        two sets of four, in each wing tip. The prototype first
        flew, under Pegasus power only, on 10th February 1967,
        but the cancellation of the VJ-101 had left the Do31
        without a military role, and it was deemed too expensive
        to develop the aircraft as a civilian transport. The Do31
        was not officially cancelled, but the project was
        inadequately funded and allowed to die.

        By now, VTOL aircraft were generally seen as impractical,
        unreliable, difficult to fly and generally inferior to
        their fixed wing counterparts and, understandably, the
        more conventional air forces were not eager to exploit
        the tactical advantages of VTOL combat aircraft. However,
        in1960 an aircraft flew which would change history. The
        prototype was called the P.1127, and
        it would develop into what we know today as the
        Harrier.

        The P.1127

        The Harrier story really begins in June 1957 at
        Hawker Aircraft, Kingston, England. It is here that
        Technical Head, Sydney Camm (designer of the WW2
        Hurricane fighter) showed Chief Designer Ralph Hooper
        the technical specifications for a new engine: the
        Bristol BE53.

        The BE53 was a unique engine because it had a
        relatively conventional intake and combustion
        chamber, but with three rotateable exhaust nozzles;
        the front pair blowing cold fan air, and the rear one
        blowing hot combustion chamber gases. This process
        allowed the engine to lift an aircraft vertically and
        then by rotating the nozzles to face backwards, the
        engine could propel the aircraft forward.

        Ralph Hooper immediately started sketching his ideas for
        a vertical/short take-off and landing aircraft based
        around this engine, and the design was given the
        prototype designation P.1127.

        The first design was known as the P.1127 HSH (High Speed
        Helicopter!). The shape of the P.1127 changed radically
        over those first two months on the drawing board. The
        first sketches were of a three-seat light observation
        aircraft, soon to develop into a two-seat armed
        observation aircraft, and finally a single-seat light
        strike aircraft. By then, the BE53 had become a four-
        nozzle engine with the single rear (hot) nozzle split
        into two.

        It was clear at this early stage that some form of low
        speed control had to be devised, because the aircraft
        would be uncontrollable at speeds below stalling speed.

        Conventional aircraft controls work by deflecting a part
        of the trailing edge of the wing, tailplane or rudder and
        the airflow over this surface creates a force which makes
        the aircraft roll, pitch or yaw respectively.

        The P.1127 could not use this system at low speed because
        airflow over the control surfaces would not generate
        sufficient force to control the aircraft.
        The system which the P.1127 used, and the Harrier still
        uses today, is the reaction control system (RCS). This
        operates simply by blowing air out of the nose, tail and
        wing tips giving full control over roll, pitch and yaw,
        even at zero forward speed.

        Work stopped on the P.1127 at Hawker for the last two
        months of 1957 as
        the company fought to get its P.1129 supersonic strike
        aircraft approved by the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD). In
        the end, a competitors design, the BAC TSR.2, was chosen
        to fill this contract. Hawker were disappointed at losing
        this major contract, and returned to the P.1127 project.
        As fate would have it, the TSR.2 was cancelled in 1965, a
        blow from which the UK aerospace industry has never
        recovered. Had the P.1129 been chosen to fill this
        contract, the engineers at Hawker would have been tied up
        working on this, and the world may never have even seen
        the Harrier!

        When work on the P.1127 resumed in January 1958, the last
        details of the basic design, such as the unusual centre-
        line undercarriage configuration, had still to be worked
        out. The reason for this configuration is because the
        rearmost, hot engine exhaust nozzles would melt any tyres
        which were in
        their path, so the wheels have to be placed out of the path
        of any jet exhaust. This undercarriage layout had been used
        before, on heavy bombers such as
        the B-52. The result of using this undercarriage arrangement
        is that the nose wheel carries an unusually high load,
        meaning that the aircraft does not "rotate" on take-off, it
        just rises into the air. The fact that it does not rotate was
        countered by giving the aircraft a nose-high attitude when
        sitting on the ground. The wing was given a pronounced
        anhedral to minimise the length
        of the outrigger wheels at the wing tips and this also
        assisted stability in the hover.

        The RAF were consulted at this stage, to determine orders for
        production
        P.1127s if the aircraft flew successfully. The RAF
        stated that they were not interested in the P.1127
        unless it was capable of supersonic performance, since
        they had a need for a supersonic interceptor, not a
        ground attack airplane.

        Stanley Hooper visited the United States in July 1959,
        and went to see the VTOL Bell X-14, at NASA Langley. It
        was here that John Slack, a director of the Langley
        facility, offered to build and test several models of
        the P.1127, using funding from the USAF. Stanley
        accepted gratefully, knowing that
        NASA had some of the finest wind tunnel facilities in
        the world.

        In the last months of1959, the first UK wind tunnel test
        results were compiled, from RAE Farnborough, and they
        proved to be extremely disappointing. The tests
        concluded that the P.1127 was highly unstable in pitch
        in the hover, making it uncontrollable, and deadly for
        any test pilot. This was due to the jet downwash blowing
        down on the tailplane, causing a severe nose-up pitch.
        Hawker were ready to end the project . They waited to
        see if the USA wind tunnel tests revealed the same
        problem.

        At NASA, Marion "Mac" McKinney dismissed the RAE tests,
        and in early 1960 proved them to be incorrect. The
        P.1127 was stable in the hover, and was
        almost stable in the transition from hover to forward
        flight. He declared that "transitions were immediately
        successful", but called for a more powerful elevator to
        overcome pitch instability problems during the
        transition. The UK MoD now took an interest in the
        project, and provided funding for four aircraft, covering
        the first 4 development P.1127s.

        The company finished construction of the first P.1127
        (serial number XP831) in July 1960, and the aircraft was
        taken  to Dunsfold airfield, the Hawker flight test site.
        In the meantime, at Bristol Aero Engines, the BE53 had
        been redesigned again, now generating 5125 kg of thrust,
        and given the name, "Pegasus", after the flying horse
        from Greek mythology. It was fitted to the Harrier in
        September 1960, and all was set for the first flight.

        In March 1960, A.W. "Bill" Bedford, chief test pilot for
        Hawker Aircraft, was assigned to fly the P.1127. He had
        already visited NASA to examine the
        American VTOL prototypes, and had already flown
        helicopters as preparation.

        Flying Prototypes

        On 21st October 1960, "Bill" Bedford became the first
        pilot to fly the P.1127. The aircraft was positioned over
        a grid to stop recirculation of exhaust gases, and was
        tethered by ropes to stop it from drifting around, or
        turning over. In the early tests, the aircraft weighed
        just 4,192 kg and was limited to three minutes fuel. The
        tethered tests continued until the 19th November 1960,
        when the aircraft flew properly for the first time. The
        aircraft continued its tests in the hover for some time,
        at various altitudes and weights, but did not use the wing
        as a source of lift until 13th March 1961, when the
        nozzles were pushed back and the P.1127 flew in the
        conventional mode.

        The second P.1127 (XP836), first flew on the 7th July
        1961, using conventional take-off and landing (CTOL). The
        tests proceeded, and on 12th September XP831 made the
        historic transition from hover to conventional
        flight, and back to hover. It should be noted that, in the
        early tests, the pilots sat on old technology ejector seats,
        different to modern zero-altitude, zeroairspeed (zero-zero)
        seats. If the pilot wanted to get out of the aircraft, he had
        to be moving along at 90 kts minimum. This meant that the
        only way
        out of the aircraft in the hover was to climb out of
        the canopy.

        The short take-off tests performed in October 1961
        showed that a short ground run would enable the P.1127
        to get airborne with a greater load, due
        to the combination of jet lift and wing lift. Tests
        continued without incident, then on 14th December 1961,
        disaster struck!

        Bill was flying XP836 near Yeovilton, Somerset, performing
        high-speed tests, when the front, left nozzle detached
        from the aircraft. Bill immediately slowed down, lowered
        the gear, and attempted to land at the Fleet Air Arm base
        nearby. The aircraft became more and more uncontrollable
        as speed
        dropped off, and began a slow roll to the right, even though
        Bill had the stick full left. Bill ejected safely, with the
        aircraft at 30 degrees of roll, the aircraft plummeted into the
        ground, and was destroyed. The lesson learned from this
        crash was to manufacture the front nozzles in stainless
        steel, not the fibreglass, which the prototypes had
        been made from.

        The first development aircraft, XP972, flew on the 5th
        April 1962. This too was the subject of an engine
        failure but managed to, make a successful glide
        landing.

        In May 1962, the go-ahead was given for the "Kestrel"
        project; a large injection of funds to get an
        operational aircraft from the   P.1127 design.

        The Kestrel

        When the Kestrel project began at Hawker, Bill was
        still flight testing the XP831, and made the first
        landing aboard an aircraft carrier, HMS Ark Royal, on
        8th February 1963. By this time, three other
        development aircraft had been built, and fitted with
        the Pegasus 3, capable of generating 6122kg of thrust.
        The last development P.1127 (XP984) was soon retro-
        fitted with the Pegasus 5, rated at 7030kg. This
        aircraft became the prototype for the Kestrel.

        For the Kestrel, Hawker made several modifications to
        the basic P.1127. The tailplane was drooped, to cure
        the hovering stability problems and the RCS was
        upgraded for a better response. The aircraft was also
        given a pylon on each wing for the carriage of weapons,
        and a reconnaissance camera was
        fitted in the nose. The final Kestrel aircraft also had
        modified intakes, with blow-in auxiliary intake doors.

        The Kestrel operational evaluation was funded in 1964 by
        the UK, Germany
        and the USA and took the aircraft through a nine month
        evaluation to
        determine how best to use a V/STOL aircraft "in the
        field". The project was very successful, and only
        suffered one aircraft loss, when a US Army pilot
        attempted to take off with brakes applied, destroying
        XS696 on the first day of operations. The project
        determined that the best way to operate the Kestrel was
        in a short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) mode.
        The P.1127 (RAF) was given the go-ahead in 1965, but was
        subject to modifications: the inclusion of an auxiliary
        power unit (APU) to allow the aircraft to start its
        engines without ground support, the inclusion of an extra
        pylon on each wing, and two 30mm ADEN cannons under the
        fuselage. The airbrake was also rigged to deploy when the
        gear was lowered, to assist in stability. The Pegasus 6
        rated at 8617kg was also fitted. The first P.1127 (RAF)
        flew on the 31st August 1966, and in early 1967, Hawker
        received an order for 90 P.1127 (RAF)s. These aircraft
        were given the in-service name "Harrier".

        The Harrier in Production

        The GR Mk.1

        On the 1st April 1969, 233 Operational Conversion Unit
        (OCU) was formed at
        RAF Wittering. This unit carried out (and still carries
        out) transition of RAF pilots to the Harrier. The first
        aircraft which 233 OCU received were the operational
        version of the P.1127(RAF), the Harrier GR Mk.1. The
        designation "GR" indicates the role of the aircraft,
        Ground attack and Reconnaissance. The first operational
        unit, No.1 Squadron was soon formed, also at Wittering,
        and the RAF began operational sorties with the Harrier.

        The first two-seat Harrier flew on the 22nd April 1969.
        This was known as the Harrier T Mk.2 (T being the RAF
        designation for Trainer). This aircraft was fitted with a
        long tail "sting" full of ballast, which served as a
        counterbalance to the longer nose and extra ejector seat
        of the T.2. To stop the longer nose from making the
        aircraft unstable in yaw, a larger fin was also fitted.
        The instructor would sit in the rear seat and have an
        unusually good view over the head of the student pilot in
        the front. A re-engined version of the T.2, known as the
        T.4, came into service in 1975.
        In 1972, No.3 and No.4 Squadron became operational, at
        RAF Wildenrath, Germany. This gave the RAF a chance to
        operate the Harrier from pre-
        prepared "hides" in the German countryside. These
        types of base are known to the RAF as "forward
        operating locations" (FOLs). Working from a FOL, it
        was found to take 20 minutes to re-fuel and re-arm a
        Harrier between
        sorties, and a single Harrier was able to generate up to
        six sorties a day. It was also found that old FOLs could
        be re-activated in just three hours. In 1977, the
        Harriers of No.3 and 4 Squadron moved to a position even
        nearer East Germany, RAF Gutersloh, just 65 miles (about
        six minutes flying time) from the "Iron Curtain".

        The GR Mk.3

        In 1975, the RAF introduced a new variant of the Harrier,
        the GR.3. This aircraft was based on the GR.1, but with
        several major differences. The main visible difference
        was the addition of a laser rangefinder and marked target
        seeker (LRMTS) in the nose. This allowed the GR.3 to
        measure the distance from a target to the aircraft via a
        laser beam which is being fired at the target by ground
        troops, or other aircraft. The Harrier can then bomb the
        target with extreme accuracy, at high speed. The other
        external difference was the fitting of a radar warning
        receiver (RWR) on the fin. This tells the pilot if he is
        being scanned by enemy radar. The GR.3 was also given a
        new engine, the Pegasus 11, rated at 9750 kg thrust. The
        existing GR.1s in service were soon re-fitted with GR.3
        systems, making the GR.3 the only operational RAF variant
        of the Harrier until the GR.5 arrived on the scene.

        The FRS. 1

        In August 1978, the Sea Harrier FRS.1 flew for the first
        time. The FRS stands for "Fighter, Reconnaissance and
        Strike" (S for "strike", as opposed to G for "ground
        attack", implies the use of nuclear weapons). This
        aircraft was based
        on the GR.1, but optimised for operation from aircraft
        carriers. The Sea Harrier entered service with the
        Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA) in June 1979, and by
        April 1982 four FAA squadrons were flying the Sea
        Harrier.

        The Falklands war of 1982 proved the Harrier to be a
        success, a force of 28 Sea Harriers accounted for 20
        confirmed and 3 probable Argentine aircraft kills for
        no loss in air-to-air combat. It should also be
        remembered that
        these aircraft spent a lot of their time flying in
        conditions which would have stopped conventional aircraft
        from operating.

        The GR Mk.5

        After several years of debate and political wrangling on
        whether to design and build a new version of the Harrier
        in the UK, the decision was made to buy modified AV-8Bs
        (see The USMC Harrier below). These aircraft were
        built in 50/50 proportions by the US and UK, and came
        into service with 233 OCU in 1987 as the Harrier GR.5.

        In 1987, the night attack Harrier II flew for the first
        time. Equipped with a forward-looking infra-red (FLIR)
        sensor, a wide angle HUD to display the FLIR information,
        a digital moving map in the cockpit and new cockpit
        displays, the night attack Harrier II can strike a
        target at any time, in any weather. When flying at
        night, the pilot wears night vision goggles (NVGs) which
        display the night landscape by enhancing available
        light. The NVGs are set to cut off when the pilot looks
        straight ahead, through the HUD. The FLIR displays the
        night landscape in shades of green and is then used to
        attack the target.

        The GR Mk.7

        In 1988, the RAF announced that it was buying the night
        attack Harrier, as the Harrier GR.7. This brought the
        total number of Harrier GR.5/7 in RAF service to 94. The
        GR.7 made its first flight on the 20th November 1989. In
        addition to the night attack modifications, the GR.7
        also features two undernose antenna for the "Zeus" self
        defence system.

        The Night Attack Harrier II

        Today, as the night attack Harrier comes into service in
        the UK and USA, this little V/STOL aircraft will be one
        of the most capable attack planes in the world, able to
        operate from austere forward operating locations and
        attack with precision in any weather, day or night.


        The US Marine

        Corps Harriers

        The United States Marine Corps (USMC) first became
        interested in the Harrier in September 1968, when two
        USMC pilots were allowed to evaluate the Harrier at the
        Farnborough air show.

        Until the advent of the Harrier, the USMC had a problem
        with aircraft procurement, because all of its funding
        came from the US Navy. The Department of Defense
        insisted that the Marines buy Navy aircraft, to allow
        them to operate from aircraft carriers. The problem was
        that the USMC had a
        desperate need for a close air support (CAS) aircraft; to
        support its troops on the front line.

        Carrier-based aircraft spend too long getting to the front
        line, so an aircraft was needed that could operate from
        forward airstrips. The only USMC
        aircraft up to this job was the A-4 Skyhawk. Once
        the A-4 had disembarked from its carrier, however,
        it needed a 4000ft runway constructed out of
        aluminium planking to operate from.

        The Harrier appealed to the USMC because it can take-
        off, with a useful
        weapons load, from a runway of just 1000ft in length. So the
        USA bought a
        foreign aircraft to go into its front line forces, this was,
        and still is, virtually unheard of. The USMC was so desperate
        to get the aircraft into service that it
        was willing to give up 17 F-4J Phantom IIs in order to get
        12 Harriers.

        The AV-8A

        The first USMC Harrier flew on the 20th November 1970, and
        was given the
        US service designation "AV-8A" (A stands for attack, V
        stands for vertical take-off, 8 stands for the eighth such
        aircraft to be built and A stands for the sub-type).

        The AV-8A was basically the RAF Harrier GR.1, but with some
        minor
        differences. Internal modifications consisted of the
        installation of American avionics, systems and ejector
        seat, and provision was made for the carriage of AIM-9
        Sidewinder missiles. The only major external difference
        between AV-8A and GR.1 was the large VHF "blade"
        antenna, mounted on the top of
        the fuselage.

        The USMC eventually took delivery of 102 single-seat
        AV-8A Harriers, and eight two-seat TAV-8A Harrier
        Trainers. The production run of 110 aircraft
        was not large enough to set up a production line in the
        US, so all of the first 110 AV-8s were built at Kingston
        and flown to America in transport aircraft.

        The Development of Harrier Combat Tactics

        The USMC soon recognised the potential for air-to-air
        combat that vectored thrust had to offer, and Lt. Col.
        "Harry" Blot performed some pioneering work on the
        technique of vectoring in forward flight (VIFF), known to
        Harrier pilots as "viffing".

        The first time Blot viffed was at 500 kts, in level flight.
        He had not tightened his shoulder straps because he did not
        anticipate any major effects and
        simply pulled the jet nozzles lever to the rear stop, and
        (as he describes it), -...the airplane started decelerating
        at an alarming rate, the magnitude of which I could not
        determine because my nose was pressed up against the
        gunsight. I was now straddling the stick, with my right
        hand extended backwards between my legs, trying to hold on
        for dear life."

        The USMC officially accepted viffing as an effective means
        to dislodge a hostile fighter from the tail of a Harrier.
        The manoeuvre is carried out as follows:- the nozzles are
        pulled forwards which results in a large deceleration; the
        attacker is forced to overshoot. The Harrier pilot then
        pushes the nozzles to face backwards, and instantly has
        100% of his thrust pointing straight back, accompanied by a
        rapid acceleration. The Harrier pilot
        is then in a ideal position to bring his missiles or large-
        calibre guns to bear on the attacker. This manoeuvre has
        surprised many an F-15 pilot, in their attempts to down
        USMC Harriers in simulated air-to-air combat.

        The reason that viffing is so effective is because the
        engine does not have to lower its RPM over any part of the
        manoeuvre, whereas a conventional
        aircraft would have to throttle back to make an opponent
        overshoot. The effectiveness of viffing on turn radius is
        minimal, however, since it only adds around 0.5"g", this
        means that a Harrier cannot use viffing to out-turn a
        dedicated dogfighter like an F-16.

        The AV-8B Harrier II

        On 5th November 1981, a complete redesign of the Harrier,
        the AV-8B
        Harrier II, flew for the first time. Since the early 70s,
        McDonnell Douglas had been working on a redesigned
        Harrier, using new materials technology. The result of all
        this research was a new wing for the Harrier, made out of
        carbon-fibre composite. The new wing also featured
        enlarged flaps, an extra stores pylon (making a total of
        three per wing) and re-positioned outrigger wheels, to
        help when operating from narrow airstrips. The new wing
        was
        flown on an AV-8A in November 1978.

         The end result of all the modifications is an
        airplane which can take off 3039kg heavier than an AV-
        8A, carry the weapon load further, and deliver it
        with twice as much accuracy. In simulated air-to-air
        combat with US fighter aircraft such as F-4 Phantoms,
        F-14 Tomcats and F-15 Eagles, the AV-8B has achieved
        an overall success rate of 2:1.

        The Squadrons

        On 15 April 1971 the first US Marine Corps Harrier
        squadron was established within Marine Air Group 32
        (MAG-32) at Beaufort, South Carolina flying the AV-8A
        (the Harrier"s US designation).  In 1992 there were
        eight USMC front-line and training squadrons
        operating the AV-8B and AV-8B Night Attack version of
        the Harrier II:

        VMA-513 -Flying Nightmares", VMA-542 -Flying Tigers",
        VMA-231 -Aces", VMAT-203 -Hawks", VMA-331 -
        Bumblebees", VMAT-223 -Tomcats", VMA-
        311 -Bulldogs", VMA-214 -Black Sheep" and VMA-221 -Wake
        Island
        Avengers" .

        Trainee USMC AV-8B pilots receive 60 hours training
        with VMAT-203 over a period of 22 weeks for them to
        achieve a combat-capable rating before they are
        transferred to an operational squadron to work up to
        combat-ready status.

        USMC AV-8Bs differ from their RAF Harrier GR7
        counterparts in a number of ways, the most obvious of
        which include the fitting of the more powerful Rolls-
        Royce Pegasus F402-RR-408 (11-61), a slightly different
        avionics and a range of weapons options that exceed
        those of the RAF"s GR7.

        USMC Harrier Operation

        From the outset, the USMC intended to operate the AV-8B
        from ships as well as from airfields and dispersed
        sites to support the Marines on the ground.  However,
        as yet no US Navy ships have been permanently assigned
        to
        operate or transport USMC AV-8B squadrons.

        The USMC uses three different types of bases, the
        largest of which is either
        an aircraft carrier or an airfield with full facilities.
        Next is what is known as a -facility": an airstrip 600-800ft
        long and closer to the battlefront from where AV-8Bs can make
        short take-offs and landings.  The facility has rudimentary
        provision for maintenance, basic navigational aids, fuel and
        ordnance. It is the equivalent to the RAF"s forward operating
        base which is known as a flying site. Closest to the
        battlefront is the forward site where
        the AV-8Bs operate off rough ground, a strip of road
        or a 72ft x 72ft aluminium metal pad.  An AV-8B
        flies fully armed and fuelled from a facility to the
        forward site where it waits on the ground in a -cab-
        rank" arrangement until called in to attack by the
        forward air controller.

        This practice differs somewhat from  the RAF"s method of
        operating Harriers  in the field from dispersed flying
        sites,  the equivalent to USMC -facilities".  USMC AV-8Bs
        are generally expected to fly in close-support of a Marine
        amphibious landing, expanding a beach-head, whereas the RAF
        Harriers are tasked with supporting a defensive landbattle
        in an area where a rapid
        advance by enemy forces could overrun flying sites,
        hence their situation further from the battlefront
        than USMC forward sites.

        Combat Operations

        LEBANON

        VMA-231 -Aces" and its AV-8As were despatched aboard
        USS Tarawa  in April 1983 for seven months off the
        coast of Lebanon to support the UN peace keeping
        force.

        OPERATION -DESERT STORM"

        With the mounting of Operation -Desert Storm" ,  AV-
        8Bs of the US 1st Marine Expeditionary Force played
        their part in close air-support against Iraqi
        artillery and armour. The use of the Hughes AN/ASB-19
        ARBS in the AV-8B"s nose tip enabled an accurate
        delivery of weapons, mainly in the form of Cluster
        Bomb Units (CBUs), in dive attacks. Napalm and fuel-
        air explosive were also dropped.  Most sorties were
        flown at high level because of Iraqi heavy Anti-
        Aircraft Artillery  (AAA) lower down and the lack of
        high altitude Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs).  AV-8Bs
        developed a system of dropping chaff in the dive and
        flares on the recovery after the attack.

         VMA-311 -Bulldogs", VMA-331 -Bumblebees" and VMA-542
        -Flying Tigers" operated their AV-8Bs from the
        metalled runways of Al-Jubayl Air Base in Saudi
        Arabia, despite their suitability for operations from
        forward strips close to the battlefront. USMC Rockwell
        OV-10A Bronco spotter aircraft kept
        the battlefield under constant observation, calling in
        air strikes by Marine AV-8Bs to destroy Iraqi artillery
        batteries along the Kuwaiti border and later to help
        halt the Iraqi push at Khafji in late January. Ten AV-
        8Bs of VMA-223 -Tomcats" remained embarked aboard USS
        Saipan  in case
        amphibious operations were launched against the Kuwaiti
        coast.



        The Falklands War

        On 19 March 1982 a small Argentinean force landed on the
        island of South Georgia, a British dependency in the
        south Atlantic, ostensibly to dismantle a derelict
        whaling station.   On 2 April Argentinean military Task
        Groups landed on the long-disputed Falkland Islands,
        overpowered the small Royal Marine garrison after a short
        fight and declared the Falkland Islands to be a part of
        Argentina.

        The invasion had been anticipated for some time by
        British intelligence and on 31 March a decision had
        already been taken to assemble a task force capable of
        retaking the Falklands if necessary, and Operation -
        Corporate" was set in motion.  A complex military Task
        Force involving thousands of troops, a fleet of ships
        drawn from the Royal Navy and the Merchant Marine
        supported by aircraft from all three services sailed on
        5 April  to a destination 8,000 miles across the world
        where, after a hard fight and the loss of irreplaceable
        men, valuable ships and aircraft, the Falkland Islands
        were finally retaken on 14 June and the Argentine
        commanders compelled
        to sign the surrender.

        The principal air components of the  British Task Force
        were the Royal Navy aircraft carriers HMS Hermes , HMS
        Invincible  and HMS Illustrious  with Sea Harrier FRS1s
        of 800, 801 and 809 Naval Air Squadrons (NAS) embarked.
        RAF Harrier GR3s from No 1 Squadron, Wittering, were
        earmarked to join the Task Force in the South Atlantic
        to reinforce the RN"s Sea Harrier FRS1s in
        the air defence role.  Fitted with long range ferry tanks
        and refuelling probes the RAF"s GR3s flew south on 4 May
        from St Mawgan to Ascension Island on
        a 4,600-mile 9.25 hour almost non-stop record-breaking
        flight, accompanied by Handley Page Victor tankers.
        Here they were flown aboard the container ship
        MVAtlantic Conveyor   with Sea Harriers of 809 NAS  and
        Boeing -Vertol Chinook helicopters for the final
        journey south.  The FRS1s and GR3s were finally cross-
        decked to HMS Hermes  on 18 May, their home for the
        duration of Operation -Corporate".  With the cessation
        of hostilities No 1 Squadron"s GR3s were land-based at
        Port Stanley airport from 4 July until 10 November.

        Royal Navy Sea Harrier FRS1s

        During Operation -Corporate", the carrier-based Sea
        Harrier FRS1s  had a four-fold role: mounting Combat
        Air Patrols (CAP) to defend the Task Force fleet; anti-
        shipping strikes; tactical reconnaissance; and a new
        role of ground-attack.  As the only member of the
        Harrier family with a primary air-combat role, the FRS1
        was fitted with single Sidewinder launch rails
        beneath each wing, although a twin-rail launcher was
        hastily developed during the conflict.

        FRS1s  were armed with a combination of AIM-9L
        Sidewinder AAMs;  twin 30mm ADEN cannon pods;
        Hunting BL755 CBUs; FAA 2in rocket pods (for
        possible anti-armour and shipping attacks); Pave Way
        laser guided bombs (LGBs); 1,000lb (454kg) iron
        bombs; Tracor ALE-40 chaff/flare dispensers mounted
        in the rear fuselage to improve self defence; two
        190 gallon drop
        tanks were carried to extend combat range.  Twenty-eight
        Sea Harriers were deployed to the Falklands and flew more
        than 1,100 CAPs and 90 offensive support operations for
        the loss of six aircraft, but none in combat.

        Royal Air Force

        Harrier GR3s

        Initially, tasked to fly in an air-defence role, the
        RAF"s Harrier GR3s were hastily converted to carry AIM-9G
        Sidewinders in support of the RN"s Sea Harrier FRS1s, but
        once the latter had firmly established air superiority
        over the Fuerza Aerea Argentina  (Argentinean Air Force)
        the 10 GR3s of No 1 Squadron were free to operate
        exclusively in their normal ground-attack or low level
        reconnaissance role from HMS Hermes  and, later in the
        conflict, from the Forward Operating Base at San Carlos.

        Weapon fits included Hunting BL755 CBUs to attack enemy
        fuel dumps,
        parked aircraft and vehicles; Pave Way laser-guided bombs
        launched against Argentinean artillery and command
        positions; 1,000 lb retard bombs for cratering grass
        airstrips and the concrete runway at Port Stanley; FAA
        2in rocket pods. Tracor ALE-40 chaff/flare dispensers
        were hurriedly fitted to improve their self defence.
        Aircraft were also equipped with a pair of 100 gallon
        drop tanks to extend their combat range. The squadron
        lost four GR3s during the battle to regain the Falklands,
        but none in combat.

        Combat Tactics

        Both Navy and RAF pilots believe that their realistic
        training programmes in peacetime enabled them to gain,
        and then maintain, air superiority over the Falkland
        Islands in 1982, despite being heavily outnumbered. It
        also transpired afterwards that Argentinean pilots were
        reluctant to -mix it" in close combat with Harriers and
        Sea Harriers, at any altitude, because they knew that
        VIFFing could cause the enemy aircraft to behave in an
        unpredictable manner.

        Due to problems with the Sea Harrier"s INS, the FRS1s
        accompanied the RAF GR3 missions from Hermes  until
        landfall was made to share the benefit of the latter"s
        accurate over-sea navigation equipment.

        Combat Air Patrols (CAP)

        CAPs were flown both by Sea Harrier FRS1s and Harrier
        GR3s from onboard
        the British carriers Hermes, Illustrious and Invincible.
        Armed with AIM-9G and L Sidewinder AAMs the CAPs were
        flown from low to medium level and
        at heights of up to about 38,000ft.  However, the exact
        patrol heights were dependent upon the prevailing weather
        conditions, visibility, the need to conserve valuable
        fuel reserves, as well as the operating height of

        Argentinean aircraft.

        Ground-Attack Missions

        Because of the nature of warfare, it is only a fool who
        adheres rigidly to textbook mission profiles when
        circumstances are crying out for him to be innovative and
        modify his tactics to suit the changed situation.  This
        was very much the case during the Falklands conflict
        since many of the textbook attack profiles had been
        written with north-west Europe in mind, where encounters
        with enemy fighters, high tension cables, expanses of
        woodland
        and built up areas would be far greater.

        The following is a typical ground-attack mission profile
        as flown by Sea Harrier aircraft during Operation -
        Corporate".  It could also quite easily have been flown by
        a mixed Sea Harrier and Harrier force.

        Twelve Sea Harriers from Hermes  were detailed to attack
        the airfields at Port Stanley and Goose Green.  Sidewinder
        and cannon-armed Sea Harriers
        from Invincible were to provide top cover in case any
        Argentinean fighters tried to interfere.  Armed with
        Hunting BL755 CBUs, 1,000 lb bombs fitted with
        instantaneous, delayed action and radar airburst
        fuses, the ground attack force took off from Hermes
        and ran in to the targets at 50ft.  The aircraft
        pulled up to 150ft at a speed of between 500-600 kts
        to drop their bombs before easing back down to ground
        level on recovery, dumping chaff in a series of tight
        manoeuvres to brake the lock-on from radar-guided
        Fledermaus ground-to-air missiles.  Once out of range
        of the defences, the force climbed to altitude to
        return to the ship where they made a vertical
        recovery.

        Early in the conflict, attempts to use the GR3"s LRMTS
        (Laser Ranging and Marked Target Seeking) equipment to
        designate for Sea Harriers using Pave Way LGBs was
        unsuccessful.  Later attacks by GR3s with LGBs using
        groundbased laser designators gave better results.

        For attacks on Port Stanley"s runway, a mixed weapon
        load of CBUs, 1,000lb bombs and FAA 2in rocket pods
        were also used, but due to the very low release height
        the accuracy of the bombs was poor.


        Harrier Pilot Training

        Harrier flying is obviously very different from that
        of other more
        conventional aircraft and for this reason pilot training
        is markedly different and has to be more intensive.

        The RAF trains its Harrier pilots to fly at No 233
        Operational Conversion Unit (OCU) at Wittering in the
        East Midlands where a mixture of Harrier GR3, GR5 and T4
        aircraft are used in this task. Training is not cheap: it
        costs the RAF somewhere in the region of 2-3 million at
        1992 prices to train a Harrier pilot, representing a huge
        investment in specialized aircrew.

        Initially, to acclimatise the pupil pilot to the peculiarities 
        of VSTOL flying, a six hour course on the Aerospatiale Gazelle 
        AH1 helicopter introduces him to hovering and transition to 
        forward flight. 
        
        Understandably, fixed-wing fliers can find it
        difficult to overcome their natural aversion to stopping an
        aircraft in mid-air and operating at heights between 50
        to100 feet.

        A short course on the Harrier T4 two-seat trainer and then
        the single-seat
        GR3 gives an introduction to the VSTOL capabilities of the
        Harrier in 16 sorties totalling some seven to eight hours,
        before moving on to the GR5/7. Next, there follows a two-
        week ground school course using interactive computer-based
        systems with touch-screens to teach all of the Harrier"s
        systems and emergency procedures. The pupil then -flies"
        the GR5/7 flight simulator to put theory into practice.
        Here he learns more about the type"s general handling
        characteristics,  instrument flying and emergency
        procedures.

        Conversion Training: Basic Squadron

        Eighteen sorties of conversion training are then flown to
        learn the specialized take-off and landing techniques
        peculiar to the Harrier: there are five different ways to
        take-off and another five different ways to land which
        need mastering, in addition to learning about the
        different surfaces a Harrier
        can operate from which include tarmac, grass strips and
        aluminium tracking. To appreciate just how difficult it
        is to master the Harrier"s take-off and landing
        characteristics, compare this element of training with
        the mere three to four sorties flown by pilots of
        conventional jet aircraft like the Tornado.
        The next step in the training process is in basic
        navigational techniques, close and tactical formation
        flying, and basic air-combat training (including VIFFing)
        on a one-versus-one basis. This includes tuition in the use
        of air-toair missiles and their handling characteristics.
        Once the basic conversion onto type training is complete,
        the pupil pilot fully-schooled in navigational techniques
        and combat training, transfers from the Basic  or -A"
        Squadron to the Advanced or -B" Squadron of the OCU.

        Conversion Training: Advanced Squadron

        Training on the Advanced Squadron begins with two weeks
        ground school on
        the weapons system simulator, where the trainee can
        learn and practise the various weapons delivery
        profiles. There then follows live flying in a GR5/7 to
        put into practice all the various delivery profiles on
        ranges in the UK. Simulated attack profiles with no
        weapons onboard are also flown over selected targets
        around the UK.  To see just how good the pupil pilot
        has become, an offensive "loose goose" aircraft is
        tagged onto his Harrier to simulate a "bandit". The
        pilot must do his utmost to lose him by manoeuvring the
        Harrier.

        Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) training is undertaken
        next at the Spadeadam range in Northumberland where
        trainees have the opportunity
        to use chaff and other features of the Harrier"s ECM
        system against "live" threats.

        Conversion Training: Operational Phase

        Several months hard work is then put to the test when
        all pupil pilots on the OCU are taken away from the
        familiar environment of their home base to
        operate from another airfield in the UK.  Detailed sortie
        planning is the order of the day and flying exercises, in
        which the various ground and air threats which could be
        encountered in an operational scenario are simulated, help
        to make the training as realistic as possible for the
        pilots.

        "Pairs Leader"

        When course is complete a "Pairs Leader" (the lead pilot
        of a pair of Harriers) is the standard delivered from the
        OCU to an operational  Harrier squadron. Night attack, low-
        level flying and air-to-air refuelling techniques are
        taught on the squadron along with close-air and multi-ship
        combat training.


        Additional Information Supplement Edited by Quentin Chaney.
        Copyright 1993 by MicroProse, Inc.
